Rapport in the Classroom: Responses and Respect

From: http://learningandteaching.dal.ca/taguide/RapportiClassroom.htm

Students are often very hesitant to speak out in class. Questions go unasked and unanswered, students remain silent because they are afraid to lose their self-esteem by being put down in front of their classmates.

Here are some hints for creating a more open, rewarding, and responsive classroom environment.


1. Listen to what students say without comment. Use eye contact, non-verbal cues such as a nod, and facial expression to indicate that you're interested.

2. Don't dismiss student comments with a vague phrase such as "uh-huh," or "okay."

3. Don't interrupt student comments or responses.

4. Try to incorporate student comments and responses into your material.

5. Encourage students to respond to each other by inviting them to comment on a remark a classmate has made.

6. Write good responses or comments on the board to emphasize the value of student contributions to your class.

7. If you are not sure what a student is asking, ask some questions which will help you clarify. Don't say, "I don't understand what you mean."

8. If you cannot answer a question, be frank with the class. Ask for help; maybe one of the students can give an example to help you out.

9. Repeat and paraphrase student answers. This shows that you were listening, helps you check that you understood what the student meant, and ensures that everyone in class hears what was said.

10. Never try to capitalize on students' confusion by ridiculing or joking about incorrect responses. "Humour" of that kind is bound to backfire and create the very kind of inhospitable climate that you are trying to avoid.

11. Never deter questions by saying, "Well that was really straightforward. I don't suppose there are any questions, are there?" You can bet there won't be.

Have Students Submit Their Lecture Notes

From: http://teaching.berkeley.edu/compendium/suggestions/file104.html

IF YOU WANT TO:


Know if the class is understanding you or not

Give help to students who are having difficulty

Motivate students to do their best work


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:
Having students turn in their lecture notes as a course assignment.

One faculty member in engineering requires that students hand in their lecture notes, course assignments, homework, quizzes, etc., two or three times a term, typically before the midterms or final exam. Students must prepare a detailed table of contents to accompany their notes.

"I find this is a good way to get a sense of how well students are understanding the material," explains the professor. "If someone is having difficulties I can spot them and give them some help.

"As an added bonus, students are able to leave this introductory course with a good set of detailed notes, and a useful table of contents, which will make it easier for them to locate this material when they need it in their later course work."


Limitations on Use of Suggestion


Discipline: None
Course Level: None
Course Size: None
Mode: None


Copyright 1983 by the Regents of the University of California

How to Deal with "Problem Students": Part II

From: http://www.tefllogue.com/in-the-classroom/tips-and-tricks-for-problem-students-the-sequel.html

The student who won’t talk

This is a problem because most native speaker teachers are – at least to some extent – there to get students to use the language and specifically to speak. Many tasks and activities require students to speak and in fact depend on their willingness to do so.

Is this student quiet because that’s their personality? Because they are not up to the level or don’t feel confident? Is something in the class making them feel uncomfortable?

The solution depends on the reason: pairwork should probably be part of the class anyway, and may be especially useful for those who are nervous about speaking in front of the group. If the problem is something in the class, see what you can do to alleviate it. I had one very aware student actually write on a feedback form “Please don’t ever make me work with Adam again”, along with a smiley. Problem solved – if only all students were this politely vocal about similar issues!

As a formerly quiet student myself, I think that putting that person on the spot in front of the group more often is unlikely to make them feel more comfortable, but sometimes it is a normal part of the class. When it’s necessary, giving appropriate prep time can help. Not everyone will grow to like or be good at speaking in front of a group, and it seems a little unfair to those without extroverted personalities to make that a main component of success in the course. Speaking doesn’t have to include a large audience.

If the whole group seems quiet, I try to evaluate if the tasks I’m giving them are appropriate for their level, if the instructions I’ve given are good enough, and if the subject matter is interesting or relevant enough. They might also all just need a coffee; I have fortunately reached a point where I realize their mood may have little to do with the tasks of my choosing and so on.

I do put more thought into the questions I ask, and try to compose them so people who don’t know a lot about the topic, or who feel adverse to sharing their own opinion, can answer most easily. For example, “How were your answers the same or different?” and “What reasons do people give for having opinion x?” are easier than “Why do you disagree?” or “What’s your opinion on x?” Roleplays also allow people who are shy about sharing their own opinions, likes, and dislikes to speak more freely as “someone else.”

Problematic office dynamic

Do you teach a group where the secretary and executive director of the same company are in a small group together, and the secretary speaks much better English? Is the director used to having what he wants and people listening till he’s done speaking? In a regular class of virtual strangers this might be easier to address, but in an office setting I’ve felt mostly a guest. After I leave, they have to work together, give each other raises or performance evaluations or whatever.

I would make an effort not to make an issue out of it and subtly pair them appropriately, or chose activities which require more balanced interaction and make it harder for one person to dominate. Competitive activities might be a no-go. It is a little counter intuitive but it has also occurred to me that if I play dumb about their positions, I may be able to get away with a little bit more. I think it’s fair to say though that at times you just need to accept that you can do your best but are not in a position to change the way co-workers interact.

A final note
Even the idea of “putting yourself in your student’s shoes” will lead to different answers for different teachers, and probably for different cultures. Sometimes techniques I came across in my CELTA were not techniques that I would appreciate as a learner. That doesn’t mean that they don’t work,or that learners should always feel 100% relaxed in the classroom - to me it just means that cookie-cutter solutions are rare.
Last but not least, if you’re studying the second conditional, you could always give them a series of hypothetical situations an throw in one based on the problem in that class. I doubt I’d really do this, but it would be interesting to hear what students think … and to see if they realized that situation was the one in their class.

How to Deal with "Problem Students": Part I

From: http://www.tefllogue.com/in-the-classroom/tips-and-tricks-for-problem-students.html

First I should say that I believe classroom “problems” don’t happen in a vacuum. It’s not as if there is only one possible solution for each for each problem that comes from exactly one source (you, the teacher). A class of adult learners is much like any group of people, and while as the teacher I am in a position to set the tone for the class, the six, eight, or twelve others in the room bear some responsibility for the dynamic too. Beyond that, students do in fact exist outside my classroom (at least I think they do), and have several years of education prior to it. I think it’s important to realize that plenty of these problems are not going to be solved by, say, better concept-check questions or a different seating arrangement. Still, you do what you can, and with that in mind:

The student who talks too much

This is the student who jumps in when you call on others, or just takes more than a reasonable share of the speaking time.

Why?

It may happen because you “let it” – by not “controlling” the class enough – but it can be hard to reconcile this with the goal of being student-centered. I think some people just like to talk a lot, or are just enthusiastic about speaking English, and are not inclined to put themselves in the shoes of others who may also need practice speaking.

What to do?

When I notice this happening, I ask myself whether I’m incorporating enough pairwork, and alternating partners often enough. I might speak directly to the student to commend his or her enthusiasm and enlist their help to get other students speaking…but sometimes it’s better just to make a joke of it. “Bob, I didn’t recognize you with your new haircut!” I might say to talkative Admira, if I call on Bob and Admira answers. If Admira is interrupting Bob mid-sentence, it may be effective to just keep your attention on Bob’s answer. This will only work, however, if Bob keeps talking, and not if he stops and defers to Admira.

The weak student

A student who frequently lags behind or just doesn’t get it can be a problem, first for him- or herself. This person often feels bad when they notice they are behind, and this affects their confidence even more. Other learners can be affected if you alter the pace of the course to adapt to one student who is not up to the level.

Once you are sure that the problem is not just shyness or a certain grammar point which they go blank on, my opinion is that the first step is to try to get the student in the right level. If you’re in a setting where the student has been placed in your class because they paid for and attended the previous level, even though they aren’t ready for the current level, this can be hard to address. Or there may not be an appropriate class this term. An ELT Notebook had some detailed advice on adapting tasks to mixed-ability learners. Also see my take on the larger picture of mixed-ability groups.

A few short and sweet tips of my own would be: make an effort to pay attention to that student – who they work well with in pairs, for example. On a common sense, personal level, I think that it’s important not to single out that student as the weak one too much. Adapt as you can, try not to put him or her on the spot if s/he is totally lost, but also keep in mind that a wrong answer is just that and not something to be ashamed of. Especially in a for-profit school, I think it’s fair to raise the issue with the student privately, though it also depends on if something can be done about it. In ideal situations, the person would want to be in the correct level, or if that’s not possible, to work a little more at home to catch up as much as they can, but in practice there are many reasons why this doesn’t work out.

Unprepared Students and Instructor/Student Conferences

From: http://trc.virginia.edu/Publications/Teaching_Concerns/Spring_1992/TC_Spring_1992_Brock.htm

As faculty members, we have all experienced the frustration of having students come to class unprepared. In desperation, I was considering remedying the situation by administrating pop-quizzes. But I was advised to try something else first: short conferences with unprepared students.

During these meetings, your goal is to let these students know that you, as instructor, are aware of their lack of preparation, and that you want to help them overcome this handicap.

During your brief conferences with individual students, find out why they don't prepare, advise them how to resolve the problem, and let them know that preparation is crucial to their success in your class and that you care about their success.

This method works wonders with most students' problems of preparation: poor grades, tardiness, lack of participation. Students who may balk at punitive measures respond very positively to your show of interest and offer to help.

63 Ideas to Encourage Student Retention

From: http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/studretn.htm

The following ideas are a product of a faculty seminar at Jefferson Community College, Kentucky. Sixty-three ideas are presented for faculty use in dealing with retention/attrition. The 63 ideas are subdivided into four general categories.

Faculty/Student Interaction

This category contains elements directly related to the affective domain of student growth brought about by faculty/student interaction. Psych, ego, individual worth are all intricately bound within this framework.

1. Learn the name of each student as quickly as possible and use the student's name in class. Based upon the atmosphere you want to create:
a. Call on students by their first names.
b. Call on students by using Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.

2. Tell the students by what name and title you prefer to be called (Prof., Dr., Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms, First Name).

3. At the end of each class period, ask one student to stay for a minute to chat (compliment on something: tell student you missed him/her if absent, etc.).

4. Instead of returning tests, quizzed, themes in class, ask students to stop by your office to pick them up. This presents an opportunity to talk informally with students.

5. Call students on the telephone if they are absent. Make an appointment with them to discuss attendance, make-up work, etc.

6. Get feedback periodically from students (perhaps a select few) on their perceptions of your attitudes toward them, your personal involvement, etc.

7. Socialize with students as your "style" permits by attending their clubs or social activities, by having lunch with them, by walking with them between classes, etc.

8. Conduct a personal interview with all students sometime during the semester.

9. Provide positive reinforcement whenever possible; give students a respectful answer to any question they might ask.

10. Listen intently to students' comments and opinions. By using a "lateral thinking technique" (adding to ideas rather than dismissing them), students feel that their ideas, comments, and opinions are worthwhile.

11. Be aware of the difference between students' classroom mistakes and their personal successes/failures.

12. Be honest about your feelings, opinions, and attitudes toward students and toward the subject matter. Don't be afraid to admit that you don't know all the answers. If a student tells you something in confidence, respect that confidence. Avoid making value judgments (verbally or non-verbally) about these confidences.

13. Lend some of your books (reference) to students and borrow some of theirs in return. You can initiate the process by saying, "I've just read a great book on _______, would anyone like to borrow it?"

14. Give your telephone number to students and the location of your office.

15. A first class meeting, pair up the students and have them get acquainted with one another. Switch partners every five (5) minutes.

16. Have the students establish a "buddy" system for absences, work missed, assignments, tutoring, etc. Exchange telephone numbers; pair them by majors or geographical proximity.


General Classroom Management

This section focuses literally on the day-to-day operations of your classes. The items as a group emphasize planning, orderliness, and general good sense.

1. Circulate around the class as you talk or ask questions. This movement creates a physical closeness to the students. Avoid standing behind the lectern or sitting behind the desk for the entire period. Do not allow the classroom to set up artificial barriers between you and the students.

2. Give each student a mid-term grade and indicate what each student must do to improve.

3. Tell the students (orally and in writing) what your attendance policy is. Make them aware of your deep concern for attendance and remind them periodically of the policy and the concern.

4. Conduct a full instructional period on the first day of classes. This activity sets a positive tone for the learning environment you want to set. Engage in some of the interpersonal activities listed elsewhere.

5. List and discuss your course objectives on the first day. Let students know how your course can fit in with their personal/career goals. Discuss some of the fears, apprehensions that both you and the students have. Tell them what they should expect of you and how you will contribute to their learning.

6. Let students know that the learning resources you use in class (slides, tapes, films) are available to them outside of class. Explain the procedures to secure the material, and take them to the area.

7. Have students fill out an index card with name, address, telephone number, goals, and other personal information you think is important.

8. If the subject matter is appropriate, use a pre-test to determine their knowledge, background, expertise, etc.

9. Return tests, quizzes, and papers as soon as possible. Write comments (+ and -) when appropriate.

10. Vary your instructional techniques (lecture, discussion, debate, small groups, films, etc.).

11. When you answer a student's question, be sure he/she understands your answer. Make the student repeat the answer in his/her own words.

12. Get to class before the students arrive; be the last one to leave.

13. Use familiar examples in presenting materials. If you teach rules, principles, definitions, and theorems, explicate these with concrete examples that students can understand.

14. If you had to miss a class, explain why and what you will do to make up the time and/or materials.

15. Clarify and have students understand what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior in a classroom. Be consistent in enforcing your rules.

16. Good eye contact with students is extremely important both in and out of class.

17. Allow students to switch classes if work schedules changes or other salient reasons develop. Cooperate with colleague if he/she makes such a request.

18. Be prepared to use an alternate approach if the one you've chosen seems to bog down. You should be confident enough with your own material so that student interests and concerns, not lecture notes, determine the format of instruction.

19. Throughout the course, but particularly during the crucial first class sessions:
a. stress a positive "you can handle it" attitude

b. emphasize your willingness to give individual help

c. point out the relevancy of your subject matter to the concerns and goals of your students

d. capitalize on opportunities to praise the abilities and contributions of students whose status in the course is in doubt; well-timed encouragement could mean the difference between retention and attrition

e. utilize a variety of instructional methods, drawing on appropriate audio-visual aids as much as possible

f. urge students to talk to you about problems, such as changes in work schedule, before dropping your course. Alternate arrangements can often be made.

20. Distribute an outline of your lecture notes before class starts. This approach assists students in organizing the material you are presenting.

21. If you require a term paper or research paper, you should take the responsibility of arranging a library orientation. Librarians would be happy to cooperate.

22. Have the counselors visit your classes to foster an awareness of counseling.


Student-Initiated Activities

This category is based on the premise that peer influence can play a substantial role in student success. Age differences, personality differences, and skill differences can be utilized to produce positive results if you can get the students to work with one another.

1. Have students read one another's papers before they turn them in. This activity could help them locate one another's errors before being graded.

2. If the class lends itself to a field trip, have the students plan it and make some or all of the arrangements.

3. Ask students to submit sample test questions (objective or subjective) prior to a test. The class itself can compose a test or quiz based on your objectives.

4. Create opportunities for student leaders to emerge in class. Use their leadership skills to improve student performance.

5. If students are receiving tutoring help, ask them to report the content and results of their tutoring.

6. Have students set specific goals for themselves throughout the semester in terms of their learning and what responsibilities they will undertake.


Faculty-Initiated Activities

This section presents the greatest challenge to the ability and creativity of each faculty member. You must take the initiative to implement these suggestions, to test them, and to device them.

1. Utilize small group discussions in class whenever feasible.

2. Take the initiative to contact and meet with students who are doing poor work. Be especially cognizant of the "passive" student, one who comes to class, sits quietly, does not participate, but does poorly on tests, quizzes, etc.

3. Encourage students who had the first part of a course to be in the second part together. Try to schedule the same time slot for the second course.

4. Ask the Reading faculty to do a "readability study" of the texts you use in your classroom.

5. Develop library/supplementary reading lists which complement course content. Select books at various reading levels.

6. Use your background, experience, and knowledge to inter-relate your subject matter with other academic disciplines.

7. Throughout the semester, have students submit topics that they would like to cover or discuss.

8. Take students on a mini-tour of the learning resources center, reading/study skills area, counseling center, etc. If a particular student needs reading/study skills help, don't send him/her, TAKE him/her.

9. Work with your division counselor to discuss procedures to follow-up absentees, failing students, etc.

10. Use your imagination to devise ways to reinforce positively student accomplishments. Try to avoid placing students in embarrassing situations, particularly in class.

11. Create situations in which students can help you (get a book for you from library, look up some reference material, conduct a class research project).

12. Set up special tutoring sessions and extra classes. Make these activities mandatory, especially for students who are doing poorly.

13. Confer with other faculty members who have the same students in class. Help reinforce one another.

14. Look at your record book periodically to determine student progress (inform them) and determine if you know anything about that student other than his/her grades.

15. Team teach a class with a colleague or switch classes for a period or two. Invite a guest lecturer to class.

16. Use the library reference shelf for some of your old tests and quizzes. Tell the students that you will use some questions from the old tests in their next test.

17. Engage in periodic (weekly) self-evaluation of each class. What was accomplished this past week? How did students react?

18. At mid-term and at final exam, your last test question should ask if a student is going to continue at the college or drop out at the end of the semester. If a potential drop-out is identified, you can advise the student to work with the division counselor.

A Sequence of Assignments Building to a Formal Paper

From: http://writing.umn.edu/tww/assignments/sequence.html

By Lillian Bridwell-Bowles, Professor, English

In order to provide writing instruction for students, it helps to break down an assignment into its component parts. Between the time that an assignment is announced and the time that it is due in final form, there is a series of steps and stages for which you can design activities. Here's one kind of breakdown.

1. Define Possible Questions
Preliminary proposal outlining areas of interest; preliminary inspection of textbook and/or course materials; and analysis of appropriate questions
A line or two of response from instructor

2. Identify Key Resources and Types of Evidence
A list of major sources and general comments about their importance
Quick evaluation and suggestions from instructor

3. Summarize and Critique Key Readings
Peer review

4. Outline or Describe Overall Structure
Look at connections between content and form; conventions of the field
Peer review; possible comparison of writer's versus reader's versions

5. Propose the Final Paper
Includes question or thesis, key resources, proposed structure for paper, revised on the basis of feedback in steps above
Instructor review

6. Write the Rough Draft
A "zero draft" for major revision
Peer review

7. Use Criticism to Revise the Rough Draft
Revision of first draft for substantive matters of content, structure, adequacy, relevance.
Peer review

8. Prepare the Polished Final Draft
Editing of draft for style, structure, mechanics
Peer review, if necessary, before instructor evaluation

9. "What I would do if I were to revise this paper…"
Self-evaluation, possible instructor response

The Change-up": A Good Pitch to Have in Your Teaching Repertoire

From: http://trc.virginia.edu/Publications/Teaching_Concerns/Fall_1997/TC_Fall_1997_Change-Up.htm

By Bill McAllister, Faculty Consultant, TRC and Department of History

We've all had the experience, probably both as teachers and learners, of drifting off part way through a presentation. The phenomenon most often occurs in lectures, but can happen in any class. Individual students pursue various strategies to cope. Some gamely attempt to stay alert, the telltale sign of which is often a noticeable snapping back of the head at the precise moment they lose consciousness. Others deliberately opt for a short sojourn in hopes of avoiding a longer recess from sentience. Most succeed in refreshing themselves one way or another, but in the interim they may have missed a goodly portion of the day's proceedings and perhaps disrupted your concentration as well.

Among the TRC's many excellent library holdings is an article that deals with precisely this issue. Entitled "The 'Change-Up' in Lectures," by Joan Mittendorf and Alan Kalish, the article addresses the empirical literature on attention span and then suggests practical ways to counteract the all-too-natural human tendency toward cerebral entropy.

Mittendorf and Kalish note that studies on attention span indicate that, when passively absorbing information, adult learners usually experience mental lapses after a mere 15-20 minutes. Moreover, refocusing efforts proved only partially successful; students tended to drift off more quickly after the initial period of alertness and inattention.

Additionally, the authors cite research indicating that, in order to make connections between old and new knowledge, students require opportunities to practice thinking in terms of new concepts. Without a chance to exercise their new-found knowledge, they are less likely to inculcate it-to make it "their own."

One relatively non-intrusive tactic you can employ to counteract the attention-gap is to utilize a "change-up" in class. The terminology emanates from the baseball diamond: by throwing the ball at different speeds the pitcher keeps batters off-balance. The concept works equally well in the classroom: by mixing brief period(s) of application into your teaching, you can help students stay alert for the entire class. Moreover, change-ups afford students opportunities to wrestle with difficult concepts and ultimately enhance student learning.

Keep in mind that change-ups need not consume large amounts of class time; many can be completed in five minutes or less. Although some instructors are loathe to spend precious classroom minutes on what might appear to be an ancillary project, the time used is more than compensated for by the increased retention rates your students will enjoy.

Here are the essential principles to follow when designing change-ups:


TIMING: Plan on inserting a change of pace every 15-20 minutes. That means a 75-minute session will typically require two change-ups, whereas a 50-minute session usually needs only one.

TOPIC: Make your activity directly related to that day's course material. When appropriate, pick a task that reinforces the central point(s) you want students to retain.

THE PITCH: Have a clear idea of what you want your students to do and give explicit instructions about what they are to accomplish. If your change-up involves a question, make sure it is unambiguous.

TALK IT OVER: Make sure to debrief after completing the activity. Discuss, explore, and confirm what students discovered. Reinforce what is important and tie it to the day's key points.

EXAMPLES

The following change-up activities have been selected from a larger range of ideas proposed by Mittendorf and Kalish and from other sources available at the TRC. For more suggestions, contact the Teaching Resource Center.


PROBLEM SOLVING

Small Group Discussions: Have students discuss a key point from today's material in groups of two to five. Ask them a question that requires analysis, evaluation, or synthesis, and see what kind of responses you get.


STUDENT-GENERATED QUESTIONS

Write a Question: Simply ask students to write down one or two questions about the material. Before providing the answer yourself , ask other students to attempt it. You could learn a lot about what they know (and don't know).

Exam Questions: Alone or in small groups, have students write their own exam questions. Select a few to read to the whole class, and critique the questions. If you collect all the questions at the end of class, you might generate some new material for your next test.


QUICKIE ASSESSMENTS

Student Evaluation of Course: Ask them to write down the muddiest point from today's class. Collect and analyze. Or, discover what you're doing well, perhaps by asking them to point out one thing you are doing that is promoting a helpful learning environment in the classroom. Their responses can be quite helpful.

Student Self-Evaluation: Ask students to rate their own performance. Do they read the assignments on time, come to class regularly, think carefully about the material, and generally take an active role in their own learning?


GENERATING IDEAS

Graphic Representations: Ask students to concoct a non-narrative account of some key issue or concept. Asking them literally to draw the "big picture" can lead to some interesting results.

Truth Statements: Ask students to write down two or three things they know to be true about some aspect of the day's material. Use the responses to examine assumptions and level of knowledge.

Perhaps the best indicator of the value of change-ups is what the students have to say about them. In my own lecture class this past spring I instituted change-ups to good effect. No one complained that they constituted an improper use of class time. Here are some of their comments about change-ups culled from end-of-semester evaluations:

Great teaching aids: the change-ups are a terrific idea, almost addictive.

The change-ups were very helpful in keeping people from losing concentration.

The change-ups are very interesting, and help provide perspective to the class.

The change-ups accommodated students, because they recognized that we become restless easily and quickly.

The change-up in the middle of the class often provided food for thought.

I enjoyed the creativity of the change-ups.

The change-ups are GREAT! All classes should have them.

The change-ups midway through class made a HUGE difference. I can't stress this enough. I loved the way they utilized the different senses to help us learn.

Inquiry-based Learning

From: "What is Inquiry-Based Learning?" From Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning. Concept to Classroom web site, http://www.wnet.org/wnetschool/concept2class/month6/

Unfortunately, our traditional educational system has worked in a way that discourages the natural process of inquiry. Students become less prone to ask questions as they move through the grade levels. In traditional schools, students learn not to ask too many questions, instead to listen and repeat the expected answers. Some of the discouragement of our natural inquiry process may come from a lack of understanding about the deeper nature of inquiry-based learning. There is even a tendency to view it as "fluff" learning. Effective inquiry is more than just asking questions. A complex process is involved when individuals attempt to convert information and data into useful knowledge. Useful application of inquiry learning involves several factors: a context for questions, a framework for questions, a focus for questions, and different levels of questions. Well-designed inquiry learning produces knowledge formation that can be widely applied.

The inquiry approach is more focused on using and learning content as a means to develop information-processing and problem-solving skills. The system is more student centered, with the teacher as a facilitator of learning. There is more emphasis on "how we come to know" and less on "what we know." Students are more involved in the construction of knowledge through active involvement. The more interested and engaged students are by a subject or project, the easier it will be for them to construct in-depth knowledge of it. Learning becomes almost effortless when something fascinates students and reflects their interests and goals.

The Teacher as an Organizer

From: http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/organize.htm

Introduction

Teaching may best be defined as the organization of learning. So the problem of successful teaching is to organize learning for authentic results. Teaching may be thought of as the establishment of a situation in which it is hoped and believed that effective learning will take place. This situation is complicated and made up of many parts.

1. There must be a learner, or more usually a group of learners.

2. There must be facilities; a stated place and time for meeting, and books and other printed materials for learning.

3. There must be an orderly and understood procedure (routine and regular, or highly varied) for presenting, discussing and evaluating.

4. There must be some way of grading so that the teacher and more importantly the pupil, will know how the learning is coming along.

5. There must be an organizer who brings these parts into a whole -- in other words, the teacher.
Teaching is the organization of learning. Thus it follows that a teacher is essentially an organizer. The task of any organizer is to enable a group and the individuals in it to function effectively together for the achievement of a common purpose. This is precisely your proper role as a teacher.


Characteristics of a Teacher as an Organizer


1. A good organizer is not an autocrat. He or she does not make all the decisions or try to tell everybody in detail what to do and how and when to do it.

2. A good organizer, however, does not simply behave like any other member of the group, without any special rights, privileges, or powers. The group needs positive leadership in order to function effectively, clarify its purpose and achieve its desired results.

3. A good organizer helps the group and the individuals in it to discover, to formulate, and to clarify their own purposes. He or she will not merely tell the learners that they must learn and do this and do that.

4. A good organizer delegates and distributes responsibility as widely as possible. He or she will try to educate the group to manage its own affairs just as far as it can. With an immature and inexperienced group a good organizer will function to a considerable extent as a director, because he must function this way for the class to get anywhere. As the class learns how to work together, and as individuals in it learn to steer their own course, the function of the organizer merges more and more into guidance.

5. A good organizer encourages and values initiative. But the initiative is not just drifting and getting off the path. It is initiative that is always within in the framework of the purpose of the class.

6. A good organizer builds on strengths rather that emphasizing weakness. He or she goes on the constant assumption that everyone is capable of some achievement, some contribution, even though that achievement may be very modest, and perhaps very different from what the organizer expected or intended.

7. A good organizer fosters self-criticism and self-evaluation within the group. As leader, as director, as guide, the organizer must often take it upon himself or herself to reveal to the group where they have succeeded and where they have failed. However, he must develop the ability to hold a mirror up to the group do they can see and judge their own accomplishments and failings.

8. A good organizer maintains control, because without control and as controller, and constantly strives to develop within the class its own self-control in terms of its common purpose.

These are some of the operating characteristics of any good organizer. They are the operating characteristics of a first-rate teacher. A teacher organizes learning. Thus, a teacher's work is different in many important specific and detailed respects from the work of a factory manager, the head of a business department, or the administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.

Good Teaching: The Top Ten Requirements

From: http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/topten.htm

By Richard Leblanc

1. Good teaching is as much about passion as it is about reason. It's about not only motivating students to learn, but teaching them how to learn, and doing so in a manner that is relevant, meaningful, and memorable. It's about caring for your craft, having a passion for it, and conveying that passion to everyone, most importantly to your students.

2. Good teaching is about substance and treating students as consumers of knowledge. It's about doing your best to keep on top of your field, reading sources, inside and outside of your areas of expertise, and being at the leading edge as often as possible. But knowledge is not confined to scholarly journals. Good teaching is also about bridging the gap between theory and practice. It's about leaving the ivory tower and immersing oneself in the field, talking to, consulting with, and assisting practitioners, and liaisoning with their communities.

3. Good teaching is about listening, questioning, being responsive, and remembering that each student and class is different. It's about eliciting responses and developing the oral communication skills of the quiet students. It's about pushing students to excel; at the same time, it's about being human, respecting others, and being professional at all times.

4. Good teaching is about not always having a fixed agenda and being rigid, but being flexible, fluid, experimenting, and having the confidence to react and adjust to changing circumstances. It's about getting only 10 percent of what you wanted to do in a class done and still feeling good. It's about deviating from the course syllabus or lecture schedule easily when there is more and better learning elsewhere. Good teaching is about the creative balance between being an authoritarian dictator on the one hand and a pushover on the other.

5. Good teaching is also about style. Should good teaching be entertaining? You bet! Does this mean that it lacks in substance? Not a chance! Effective teaching is not about being locked with both hands glued to a podium or having your eyes fixated on a slide projector while you drone on. Good teachers work the room and every student in it. They realize that they are the conductors and the class is the orchestra. All students play different instruments and at varying proficiencies.

6. This is very important -- good teaching is about humor. It's about being self-deprecating and not taking yourself too seriously. It's often about making innocuous jokes, mostly at your own expense, so that the ice breaks and students learn in a more relaxed atmosphere where you, like them, are human with your own share of faults and shortcomings.

7. Good teaching is about caring, nurturing, and developing minds and talents. It's about devoting time, often invisible, to every student. It's also about the thankless hours of grading, designing or redesigning courses, and preparing materials to still further enhance instruction.

8. Good teaching is supported by strong and visionary leadership, and very tangible institutional support -- resources, personnel, and funds. Good teaching is continually reinforced by an overarching vision that transcends the entire organization -- from full professors to part-time instructors -- and is reflected in what is said, but more importantly by what is done.

9. Good teaching is about mentoring between senior and junior faculty, teamwork, and being recognized and promoted by one's peers. Effective teaching should also be rewarded, and poor teaching needs to be remediated through training and development programs.

10. At the end of the day, good teaching is about having fun, experiencing pleasure and intrinsic rewards ... like locking eyes with a student in the back row and seeing the synapses and neurons connecting, thoughts being formed, the person becoming better, and a smile cracking across a face as learning all of a sudden happens. Good teachers practice their craft not for the money or because they have to, but because they truly enjoy it and because they want to. Good teachers couldn't imagine doing anything else.

Seven Body Language Mistakes

From: http://www.positivityblog.com/index.php/2008/09/17/do-you-make-these-7-body-language-mistakes/

When you talk you aren’t just communicating with your words.

In fact, you are communicating with your whole body.

According to research done by Albert Mehrabian, currently Professor Emeritus of psychology at UCLA, words are only 7 percent of your communication.

The rest is your voice tonality (38 percent) and your body language at 55 percent.

These numbers may vary depending upon the topic, situation and how something is communicated (for instance, talking over the phone is obviously different from talking face to face) but body language is still a very important part of communication.


Three good reasons to improve your body language:

Improve your communication skills. If you improve your body language you can get your thoughts across in a more effective way. You can create a connection to another person more easily. When using more powerful and appropriately balanced body language your communication skills become better and more focused.

Emotions are linked to your body language. Emotions work backwards too. If you feel good you’ll smile. If you force yourself to smile you’ll feel good too. If you feel tired or down you might sit slumped down. If you sit slumped down you’ll feel more tired and negative. Just try to sit straight up for 5 minutes and feel the difference in energy from half-lying in your chair.

Increase your attractiveness. It’s not what you say, it’s how you say it. A better posture and a more enthusiastic and focused body language will make anyone more attractive. And not just in a sexual way but also when talking to new friends or in job interviews and business meetings.

These 7 common body language mistakes is a mix of deeper things that control our body language. And a few tips where you manually correct and stop reinforcing certain old habits.


1. Not keeping your emotions and focus in the right place.

It seems to me like the biggest part of your body language is how you feel. When you feel open, positive and confident that will come through in your body language. You’ll smile and laugh more and gesture confidently and openly.

So to improve your body language in a consistent way in your day to day life the major part consists of improving your life. For example to sleep enough, to eat right, to work out and to get the things you want to get done handled. When you live the life you want to live, when are going about your daily life being your “best self” then you tend to feel good or great. And that comes through in your body language.

As expected, no quick fixes will solve your problem. They can help though.

You can for instance change how you feel temporarily and then build on that feeling by acting as you would like to feel. Once example would be to take kind actions towards someone even though you might feel envious. And then build on that kind feeling your kind action generates. Here are few more ways to quickly change how you feel and a few tips on how to turn a bad day around to a good one.

2. Becoming too self-conscious.

To keep your feelings, thoughts and body language in the right place or to make a change you need to monitor yourself. However, over-doing it will quickly turn your ambitions into feeling self-conscious and nervous. If your inner dialogue goes ”Am I doing it right? Am I sitting right? Am I walking too slow? Or too fast?” then you are feeling worried and anxious. That comes through in your body language.

So you need to learn to check your feelings/thoughts or the part of your body language you want to change once in a while. And learn to not let this desire to change spiral out of control into babbling thought patterns in your head that just go around and around and make you feel bad. More on this in the next section.

3. Taking yourself or life too seriously.

Generally, taking yourself or things too seriously isn’t a great idea for several reasons. It can cause you to get offended and angry or resentful for the smallest negative thing someone says or does. It can make it hard for you to let things go and instead you let them fester. It can make tasks a whole lot harder to get done as you might see everyday life as a bitter struggle. It can help you reinforce and strengthen victim thinking.

This isn’t good for your interactions. And it isn’t good for your body language as your negative feelings will come through to others.

It’s also not a helpful attitude to have if you want to change your body language as it can make you take this challenge all too seriously. That can cause you to get upset with yourself when you make a mistake. And make you think so much about the challenge that your thoughts get stuck in self-conscious loops.

A few tips for adopting a lighter attitude towards yourself and life are to not identify so much with your thoughts and emotions, to realize that you are not you ego and to develop an abundance mentality. You can read more about those three suggestions in Lighten Up!.

4. Moving too fast and fidgety.

If you move too fast you can feel stressed. The stress can then reinforce how fast you move. Or make you more fidgety. Moving fast and fidgeting around can make people around you feel stressed, nervous, distracted and uncomfortable.

Shaking your leg while seated or tapping your fingers against the table rapidly are two fidgety habits. Touching your face a lot is another one.

Instead of fidgeting with your hands and scratching your face you can use them to communicate what you are trying to say. Use your hands to describe something or to add weight to a point you are trying to make. But don’t use them to much or it might become distracting. And don’t let your hands flail around, use them with some control.

If you have a tick or feel fidgety then learning to relax more can help you out. You can, for instance, become more relaxed by just moving slower. This will also make you seem more calm and confident.

Or you can weed out your habit of touching your face simply by keeping it in mind and avoiding it. There might also be larger issues in your life that you need to resolve to decrease or remove your bad habit.

You can find 36 tips for decreasing stress in your life in this article.

5. Not keeping your posture in mind.

From time to time that is. You shouldn’t make mistake #2 and getting obsessed with it. Sitting or standing up straight in a relaxed manner with your head up has a few benefits:

It creates positive emotions such as alertness and feeling focused.

It can help you with first impressions as it makes you seem more interesting/attractive.

It can sometimes help you avoid pain in your back, shoulders etc.

6. Closing up.

Being open and conveying that you are open is one of the most important parts of communication. If you start to close up or walk into an interaction closed up then it will be hard to establish a genuine connection. If you feel a bit wary and closed up inside then it will not only stop you from being open. It will also keep you from relaxing, smiling and laughing and having fun.

A few common ways to close up is to:

Cross your arms and/or legs. You have probably already heard you shouldn’t cross your arms as it might make you seem defensive or guarded. This goes for your legs too. Keep your arms and legs open. Taking up space by for example sitting or standing with your legs apart a bit signals self-confidence and that you are comfortable in your own skin.

Not keeping eye contact. If there are several people you are talking to, give them all some eye contact to create a better connection and see if they are listening. Keeping too much eye-contact might creep people out. Giving no eye-contact might make you seem insecure. If you are not used to keeping eye-contact it might feel a little hard or scary in the beginning but keep working on it and you’ll get used to it.

Hold your drink at your chest. Don’t hold your drink in front of your chest. In fact, don’t hold anything in front of your heart as it will make you seem guarded and distant. Lower it and hold it beside your leg instead.
Closing up often comes from feeling nervous or insecure. You may in some way perceive the people you are meeting as a threat.

Perhaps you’re afraid that they will mock you, not like you or that you will make a fool of yourself in some way. A few tips to a shake these thoughts and feelings out of yourself is to:

Belly breathe. This is one of my favourite tips to make myself feel more relaxed and calm in just a minute or two. Read about it here.

Assume rapport. Just before a meeting, you just think that you’ll be meeting a good friend. Then you’ll naturally slip into a more comfortable, confident and enjoyable emotional state and frame of mind.

This also helps you and the other people to set a good frame for the interaction. A frame is always set at the start of an interaction. It might be a nervous and stiff frame, a formal and let’s-get-to-the-point kind of frame or perhaps a super relaxed one. The thing is that the frame that is set in the beginning of the conversation is often one that may stay on for a while. First impressions last. With some practise - to remove inner resistance towards this idea and get you to feel more like you know what you’re doing – you may become pretty surprised at how effective assuming rapport is. I was.
Experiment. Have a look at a few more ways to handle nervousness. And a few tips for putting a stop to anxiety. Try a few of them plus the ones above to find which one(s) fit you the best.

7. Holding yourself back.

So, let’s say you know most of the things above already. It isn’t exactly rocket science. So why are you still not using those tips - or tips from somewhere else - to change and experiment with how you communicate?

One big reason may be that you are holding yourself back.

You may hold yourself back from becoming more expressive over all or, for instance, with your hands. Or you may hold yourself back completely from taking up more space or making more eye-contact.

Holding yourself back may be because of a few different reasons. The most common one is probably the one already described in the previous mistake: a fear of what others may think, say or do.

Yes, people may react negatively. And yes, you might exaggerate your body language a bit too much at first by for instance sitting with your legs almost ridiculously far apart.

However, people aren’t looking at you as much as you may think. They are like you. They have their own stuff to think and worry about. If you experiment with your body language, then sure, you might seem a little strange sometimes. But most of the time people will probably not even notice that you have changed something. They aren’t standing around watching your every move all day long.

Also, keep in mind that if you for example are normally not that expressive then what might feel weird to you isn’t necessarily that weird to others. It’s just you comparing the old way to the new way in your own head. It’s just you getting used to being more expressive.

If you change your body language for the better, most people will only react in a more positive way towards you. Because as mentioned in mistake #1, how you live your life and how you feel comes through in your body language. And if you feel great then that comes through. And emotions are contagious. So now, people you interact with feel better too. And just about everyone wants to feel positive emotions.

So, yeah, you may look like fool a few times if want to change. But that’s OK. It’s a lot better than going around all of your life and holding yourself back. And if you don’t take yourself and life too seriously – mistake #3 – then your fear of looking like a fool and being rejected in some way will decrease.

Suggestions for Classroom Discussions

From: http://www.cat.ilstu.edu/additional/tips/cdisc.php

Sandra Metts, Department of Communication
Illinois State University

Fundamental Premise:
Although lecture can certainly be an efficient means of instruction, it often functions as an information delivery system rather than a learning experience. Engaging students in a carefully planned classroom discussion stimulates a more active role in the learning process. Learning is rooted in the experiencing of information, not in the information. Manipulating, extending, and expressing one's understanding of information is what classroom questioning and answering is all about.

Preparing for Classroom Discussion

1. The typical college student (and many college faculty members) are far more familiar with questions that assess recall of information. Evaluating and applying information can be an unfamiliar opportunity for students (and possibly instructors). Ways of evaluating the quality of an answer—other than right or wrong—require consideration of criteria. For courses such as FOI, criteria are likely to include the validity of the premise, the quality of the evidence, the relevance of the evidence to the point at hand, and the logic of the conclusion.

2. Have questions prepared beforehand. Even if a discussion leader is familiar with the material, good questions may not come to mind spontaneously during the press of classroom interaction. It is easy to get caught up in the moment and let the discussion move into less relevant areas. Prepared questions can be kept on the overhead or on the board to keep everyone on task.

3. If questions are especially challenging and/or some members of the class are reticent to speak, pass out questions prior to the discussion period. Although instructors do, occasionally, want to see how well students can think about issues "on the spur of the moment," many students are reluctant to engage in spontaneous debate. Truly controversial and complicated issues are probably best discussed after students have had time to apply the readings to specific questions.

4. If questions are especially challenging, the instructor might want to think through the options for "good" answers and the criteria by which these answers are evaluated. Thinking through possible answers should not prevent an instructor from being open to unanticipated alternatives.
5. Questions can take many forms. Four common question types include:

Memory Questions: Recall of information.

Convergent Questions: Connection known details to infer relationships among pieces of information.

Evaluative Questions: Making judgments as to the logic, reasonableness, or worth of an idea or argument. Judgments might be ethical, pragmatic, logical, etc.

Divergent Questions: Imagining new possibilities; original thinking that cannot be tested directly against known information. "What if" types of questions.

Suggestions for Facilitating Classroom Discussion

1. Use words with the vocabulary range of the students. This requires a tricky balance between teaching students new words but not intimidating students into not being able to provide an answer because they don't understand the question.

2. Pause after asking a question ("wait time"). Five seconds of silence can seem like an eternity, but students need time to process the question and construct an answer, especially when the question is convergent, evaluative, or divergent.

3. Don't answer your own question. Once students realize that the instructor will answer his or her own questions, they begin to disengage.

4. Give a question to the entire class first. If you decide to call on a specific student, say the student's name, repeat the question, and then wait for the response. For some students, hearing their name causes a brief moment of startle. They might well forget the question when the class turns their full attention in their direction.

5. Develop strategies to cope with the over-zealous student (the dominant talker) and the reticent student.

If a few students seem to dominate discussion, try asking for a raised hand to determine speaking order.

Some students seem never to speak, try putting students into small groups to discuss the questions first. Then ask each group to present their answers for a particular question, using a different speaker each time. (e.g., four questions–four group members-everyone speaks).

If a student continues to dominate or continues to remain silent, individual meetings with these students might be useful. Some dominant students may not realize how their behavior affects the classroom environment. Some reticent students may be high on Communication Apprehension and the thought of speaking up in a classroom discussion is actually painful to imagine. Talking such students through this fear can be helpful (as can providing them with the questions ahead of time).

6. Encourage lengthy responses and fully developed answers. Try follow-up questions such as "Under what circumstances?" or "How might that be accomplished?" or "Why do you believe that would be the consequence?"

Also use the discussion process to encourage more developed answers. For example, allow an abbreviated answer to stand temporarily while another student comments. Then return to the first answer and ask that student if subsequent discussion has altered, contradicted, or elaborated the original answer. This is a great way to facilitate dialogue between students. In addition, students often learn to provide more fully developed answers when they realize that their brevity has led to misinterpretation.

7. Try not to interrupt a student who is attempting to answer a question and don't allow other students to interrupt. Ethical communication involves the respectful acknowledgment (though not necessarily acceptance) of a different point of view.

8. Make the class responsible for their discussion. Instructors should facilitate, not carry or dictate, the discussion.

Encourage students to comment on the responses of classmates before summarizing or moving to another question.

Avoid repeating an answer. Let students assume the responsibility for the accuracy and audibility of their comments.

When a student asks a good question, turn it back to the class to answer. If the class answers the question, then let the answer stand and move on. Don't undercut their efforts by re-answering the question as though only you had the right answer anyway.

9. Attend to nonverbal signals indicating that a student would like to ask a question, would like to answer a question, or would like to make a comment.

10. Be aware of you own nonverbal behavior when students are asking or answering questions. The body sends very subtle messages of approval/disapproval, interest/disinterest. For example, let a student finish speaking before looking down at your notes or at the clock.

11. Be aware of the problems inherent in five typical types of classroom questions.

The Dead-end Question: Requires only a yes/no response. For example, "Can animals communicate with each other?"

The Programmed-answer Question: Doesn't necessarily require only yes or no, but does indicate in its form what the intended answer is. For example, "Many scholars say that animals can communicate with each other, but are they using signals or language?

The Chameleon Question: The question begins in what seems to be one direction and then switches to a different direction. For example, "If language requires both symbols and rules for combining those symbols, can animals have language? That is, if a chimpanzee can be taught to make the sign for banana, does it have language?"

The Fuzzy Question: A variation of the Chameleon Question that does not even contain the clarity of a directed question. For example, "what do you think about animals communicating?" Such questions might well elicit responses ranging from "Well, I like it when my dog wags his tail" to "I don't believe that animals do communicate in the sense of constructing messages in order to express their needs, act on their physical environment, and build social bonds."

The Put-down Question: A largely rhetorical question that minimizes the legitimacy of a comment or closes down addition discussion. For example, "Can we all see why Mary's solution is not feasible?" (Not only does Mary get put down, but only the boldest of students would speak up if they actually had thought that Mary's solution was pretty good). Or, "Well, Paul answered that question fully. We certainly can't add to that, can we?" In this case, Paul was not put down, but any student who might have wanted to add to the answer will have to re-open the issue at some risk.

Assign Readings to Represent a Variety of Viewpoints

From: http://teaching.berkeley.edu/compendium/suggestions/file2.html

YOU WANT TO:

Discuss points of view other than your own

Contrast implications of various theories

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning multiple readings to represent a variety of viewpoints.

"Because the most controversial issues covered in the course are ones on which the students have strong opinions but little information, I try to expose them to diametrically opposite positions or theories," says one professor of political science.

A professor of business administration adopts the same strategy. "I use the semi-socratic technique to lead the students through an analysis and critique of each theorist's position. The focus is not on opinions but the reasons behind them. Sometimes my own view is apparent, either explicitly or implicitly; other times it is not."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion:
Discipline: Subjects with opposing views
Course Level: None
Course Size: None
Mode: Lecture/Discussion

Leading Discussions

From: http://www.ou.edu/pii/tips/ideas/discussions.html

Note: This handout has been assembled by Arletta Knight, based on material in:Lowman, Joseph (1995).Mastering the Techniques of Teaching, 2nd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

I: General Principles for Leading Good Discussions

First general principle:
Use discussion for an intended purpose - not simply because there is something inherently beneficial about hearing students' voices

Second general principle:
The advantages of discussion must be weighed against what can be accomplished, given a number of realistic constraints

Rules to remember:
Most of us try to have discussion fill too much time. It may be most effective to have only 10-15 minutes, unless students are really skilled at expressing themselves.

Participation should be voluntary, not done for "credit," too hard to evaluate

Teachers must participate too - Let's see what we can discover, What are we to make of this?

Lowman believes that if teachers intend to use discussion as an integral part of the class, they should devote the first two classes to discussion in order to condition students early to respond when asked.

II. Responses to Faculty Questions about Leading Discussions

1. How do I get students to speak up?

Students need to be "emotionally" involved. To begin, they must have a common experience -via demonstration, case study, news clipping, provocative film, or intriguing reading assignment- or common personal experience.

Whatever method is used to provoke emotions, remember that emotions are fleeting, discussion must follow immediately. However, purely emotional issues have little educational value in themselves. They must be used to aid learning by enhancing students' involvement in subsequent discussion and making what is said more salient.

One method for engaging students emotionally is to ask them to argue for the position they do n endorse. That is, against their own beliefs.

Discussion need not always be a major production. Once students have become accustomed to frequent discussion, an engaging lecture will suffice to create the necessary emotional involvement.

Having students write down their reactions to the "discussion question" helps to initiate the process. "Pairing" also helps students to speak in front of the whole class. That is, ask them to work in pairs to answer a discussion question. They will feel more confident in sharing their answer if they have collaborated with another student.

2. How do I get the whole class to participate, not just a few?

Scan the classroom frequently to be sure you notice students who wish to speak. Some raise hands very tentatively. As a result, recognize those students who talk infrequently before those who always speak up.

Every student should be reinforced or treated positively for making a comment in class--even if the comment seems dead wrong. Look for, and emphasize, the parts that were insightful or creative even if you have to be "creative" to find something positive. A good response is, "Thanks for taking a stab at it."

Concentrate on "building" on student comments.

Ask students to write a response to your question on a piece of paper; then have them pass that response to a neighbor. Without looking, the neighbor is asked to pass the response to another student, that student passes it one more time. By this time, the response is totally anonymous so the originator is not threatened. Now, ask the class to share some good answers. They are more likely to share someone else's response, especially if the issue is controversial, sensitive, or requires creativity.

Remember that students who are silent are not necessarily uninvolved; one of the beauties of engaging in discussion is that the "observers" can be as involved and intellectually active as the "participants."

3. How do I "toggle" between lecturing and leading discussions?

Let students know when you have "shifted gears" to another discussion topic or back to lecturing by using a forceful voice and strong bodily movements. That is, the same kind of voice and gestures you normally use to begin a class or when lecturing.

In the middle of the lecture, ask students to guess what happens next, or ask "what might be the next point in the argument?"

When referring to a key figure, ask students to imagine this person's rationale for some of his/her actions, e.g., "What was he thinking?" "Why did she do it that way?"

4. What is the proper way to word discussion questions?

If students must work to decipher your question, they are less likely to respond to it. There is generally an inverse relationship between the number of words in an instructor's probe and the length of subsequent student comments. Asking a second or third question, or rewording before the first question has been answered is not likely to elicit productive discussion. Discussion questions should be easily understood by students, put forth decisively, and followed by silence.

Good questions to ask:

"Are you in favor of ______? Then how did you arrive at your position?"

To stimulate objective thinking rather than personal identification
What are some problems with that line of reasoning?
If we assume that the author had these two purposes, how else might she have brought the plot to resolution?

Diagnostic thinking - asking students to draw conclusions from a data set

Independent thinking - challenging students about why they concluded what they did

"As if" thinking - asking students to make predictions about future events or data

Problem-solving - asking students to propose solutions to the problems under study

5. What is the proper way to set up a discussion?

The following method for training a class to respond to well-phrased questions has been successful for a large number of college teachers:

Begin by stating your question in a relaxed and confident manner. When you finish, start counting silently to yourself: "one thousand and one, one thousand and two," and so on until you get to "one thousand and ten." Ten seconds is not a long period of silence, though it will seem like an eternity unless you mark its passage. Scan the room slowly, remaining calm and relaxed, as you count. If students are in an aroused state or you have just used the pairing technique, you will not have to wait long for the first response, but you can expect to get all the way to ten several times during a term, especially during the first few classes when your control over the class is not yet well-established.

If it seems that no response is going to come before you get to ten, begin moving slowly toward a table, chair, or wall. When you finish your count, remain calm and repeat the question in a shorter and slightly modified form--a "reprobe." If you wish, you may reduce even further the students' fear of giving a wrong answer, e.g., "Give any associations at all". As you finish the reprobe, calmly, patiently, and slowly lean or prop yourself against whatever solid object you have maneuvered near and begin your silent count once again. You can be confident that your nonverbal message--"See how comfortable I've made myself; I can wait here all day!"--will prompt students to respond. Teachers using this two-probe technique almost always see students respond before they pass "five" on their second count. Once the class has become conditioned to discuss when you ask for it, you will rarely need to use this maneuver again. However, remember that the original question must be well-phrased.

6. How can I keep the discussion "on task"?

It helps to jot down comments on the board as they are offered. Organize student comments into a mosaic of related ideas; into themes meaningful to the group as a whole. Indicate later how the different ideas illustrate the overall dimensions of the topic.

Lowman believes that the single most useful technique for controlling student discussion is the age-old practice of having students raise their hands to speak. This method lets you decide who will talk and makes it less likely that only the loudest and most assertive students will get the floor.

Controlling an overly talkative student:

Avoid looking in his/her direction when asking a question

Turn your back slightly

Scan others' faces, and wait for another student to respond.

Do not always overlook this student, sometimes call on him/her immediately. Calling on the student immediately usually gives the student the understanding of when it is appropriate to speak.

Slowly walk away from the student when he or she is talking. However, do not turn your back entirely on the student. Look around the room at the whole class as the student is speaking.

7. How can I avoid appearing to "put down" students when I am trying to challenge them?

Watch nonverbals - Merely looking away when the student is speaking or sighing slightly afterward gives the same message as if you had scowled or thrown up your hands. Establish and maintain eye contact, making positive nonverbal responses, nodding head, smiling, anything to show interest.

Students learn most from struggling with a problem or issue, so you should not propose a solution too quickly even if directly asked. It is much more productive to shape the students' ideas and withhold personal comments until the end, if not completely.

8. What is the proper way to end the discussion?

Give students warning that the discussion is about to end, e.g., "Are there any other comments before we tie these ideas together?"

Always end the discussion with a summary.

Effective Techniques of Questioning

From: http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/effquest.htm

Wilen, Effective Techniques of Questioning, 1986

Plan key questions to provide structure and direction to the lesson. Spontaneous questions that emerge are fine, but the overall direction of the discussion has been largely planned.

Example: a "predicting discussion" (Hyman, 1980)

1. What are the essential features and conditions of this situation?

2. Given this situation, what do you think will happen as a result of it?

3. What facts and generalization support your prediction?

4. What other things might happen as a result of this situation?

5. If the predicted situation occurs, what will happen next?

6. Based on the information and predictions before us, what are the probable consequences you now see?

7. What will lead us from the current situation to the one you predicted?

Phrase the questions clearly and specifically. Avoid vague and ambiguous questions.

Adapt questions to the level of the students' abilities

Ask questions logically and sequentially

Ask questions at various levels

Follow up on students' responses

Elicit longer, more meaningful and more frequent responses from students after an initial response by -
a. Maintaining a deliberate silence

b. Making a declarative statement

c. Making a reflective statement giving a sense of what the students said

d. Declaring perplexity over the response

e. Inviting elaboration

f. Encouraging other students to comment

Give students time to think after they are questioned (Wait Time)

The three most productive types of questions are variants of divergent thinking questions (Andrews, 1980):

1. The Playground Question
Structured by instructor's disignating a carefully chosen aspect of the material (the "playground")

"Let's see if we can make any generalizations about the play as a whole from the nature of the opening lines."

2. The Brainstorm Question
Structure is thematic

Generate as many ideas on a single topic as possible within a short period of time
"What kinds of things is Hamlet questioning - not just in his soliloquy, but throughout the play?"

3. The Focal Question
Focuses on a well articulated issue

Choose among a limited number of positions or viewpoints and support your views

"Is Ivan Illych a victim of his society or did he create his problems by his own choices?"

Multiple Intelligences

From: http://www.funderstanding.com/multiple_intelligence.cfm

Definition
This theory of human intelligence, developed by psychologist Howard Gardner, suggests there are at least seven ways that people have of perceiving and understanding the world. Gardner labels each of these ways a distinct "intelligence"--in other words, a set of skills allowing individuals to find and resolve genuine problems they face.

Discussion
Gardner defines an "intelligence" as a group of abilities that:

1. Is somewhat autonomous from other human capacities

2. Has a core set of information-processing operations

3. Has a distinct history in the stages of development we each pass through

4. Has plausible roots in evolutionary history

While Gardner suggests his list of intelligences may not be exhaustive, he identifies the following seven:

1. Verbal-Linguistic--The ability to use words and language

2. Logical-Mathematical--The capacity for inductive and deductive thinking and reasoning, as well as the use of numbers and the recognition of abstract patterns

3. Visual-Spatial--The ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions, and create internal images and pictures

4. Body-Kinesthetic--The wisdom of the body and the ability to control physical motion

5. Musical-Rhythmic--The ability to recognize tonal patterns and sounds, as well as a sensitivity to rhythms and beats

6. Interpersonal--The capacity for person-to-person communications and relationships

7. Intrapersonal--The spiritual, inner states of being, self-reflection, and awareness

How Multiple Intelligences Impact Learning

Curriculum --Traditional schooling heavily favors the verbal-linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences. Gardner suggests a more balanced curriculum that incorporates the arts, self-awareness, communication, and physical education.

Instruction --Gardner advocates instructional methods that appeal to all the intelligences, including role playing, musical performance, cooperative learning, reflection, visualization, story telling, and so on.

Assessment --This theory calls for assessment methods that take into account the diversity of intelligences, as well as self-assessment tools that help students understand their intelligences.

Reading Comprehension Groups

Thanks to John for this tip:

A reading comprehension strategy that has been proven to enhance students’ abilities to read and learn text material involves four processing skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. Students are arranged in groups of four and given a section of text to read. They then complete the above four reading processes to understand and learn the text material.

Summarizing: the students condense the text into an expression in their own words that includes the main ideas/concepts and important details.

Questioning: this phase can be elaborate and involved. Students might raise questions about facts in the text as a means of review or test preparation. They may go beyond the text, however, to ask inferential questions that require outside the text knowledge to answer. Questions may involve application/synthesis thinking within the group.

Clarifying: this skill might simply involve developing a clear understanding of terms and concepts the students have just read. The clarifying process may also be directly related to answering questions raised. Clarifying asks the students to delve deeper into the material to achieve a thorough understanding.

Predicting: readers need to stop at some midway point to discuss what conclusions or what direction the text is headed. This process involves abstract or inferential thinking and requires a good understanding of the text up to the stopping point. Predicting outcomes raises students’ attention levels to learn if the prediction is correct or not.

Students can use this process individually, in pairs, or in small groups. The groups allow for specialization, each student being responsible for one of the four elements. The entire technique can be applied to development of general reading skills or, and more importantly, the development of a solid understanding of an assigned text.

http://www.readingquest.org/strat/rt

Also, the following website has a complete root word list, some 600 or so roots, that could be of value in many disciplines.

http://www.vocabulary.com

The Grind

From: http://www1.indstate.edu/cirt1/facdev/tips/classparticipation/thegrind.html

As the semester moves into the “grind period”, where the responsibilities and deadlines that push teachers and students mount up, effective teachers know that long-term productivity requires steady effort. It is essential to avoid becoming overwhelmed or exhausted. This tip focuses on strategies you might recommend to your students to help maintain an energy level that can sustain their efforts during the grind part of the semester. They parallel techniques that many of us use in getting ourselves through the busy part of our schedule.

Change the Pace
One way to help ourselves and our students during a busy time is to make a shift in the nature or pace of our assignments.

Catch-up Time. Give students some class time to work on their assignments.
In a similar way, consider giving yourself some time just to get caught up. Put new ideas and projects on hold while clearing up the stack of work you currently face.

Surprise. Introduce students to some surprising aspect of your discipline. Make the purpose of the lesson be to capture their imagination and interest rather than convey new information. See if taking some time yourself to read an intriguing book or article that you have been putting off doesn't help renew your interest.

Fun Time. Have students play a game or watch a movie related to the topic of study. Ask students to role play. Provide a set of problems that requires lateral or creative thinking and encourage small group discussion.

Experiment. If you have been considering a different format for your class, this is a good time to try it out. Choose one class period and let students know what your goal is.

Pause and Think
As we respond to day-to-day events, we can lose track of our guiding principles. Take some time to remind your students and yourself what the larger picture looks like.

Prioritize. Ask students to list their top 3 priorities (for the course, their major, etc.). Have them briefly outline their plans for accomplishing them. Ask how their work in the course fits into these plans.

Reflect. Take time out to reflect. Ask students to think about the deeper lessons of your subject. How are students changing as a result of what they have learned so far?

Quality Time. Have students reflect on the quality of their work to date. Have them list 1 or 2 ways they could improve.

Dreams. Give students some time to share their dreams. Ask them to discuss the difficulties they experience in college. Have them share ideas about how to overcome these obstacles.

Relaxation. Share with students some techniques for relaxation. One minute of silence at the beginning of a work session is often a quick way to reinvigorate all participants.

Encouragement
Find ways to encourage yourself and your students over the next few weeks. Tapping another source of energy can help students through the grind.

Praise. Honest recognition for specific achievements is a great morale booster. Create a moment to congratulate the class, a work team, or individuals for good efforts.

Humor. This is a good time of the semester to bring some humor into the class. Ask some of the talent in your class to contribute. Remind them to avoid derogatory jokes.

Fun. Work can't be fun all the time, but allowing for occasional moments of levity can help re-energize work. Add some humorous overheads, use off-beat examples, or invent up-beat group work activities.

Final Comments
Maintaining an effective pace through the most grinding part of the semester is key to dealing with the potentially overwhelming pile of expectations we face. Effective teachers use a variety of strategies to cope with such demanding periods in their own lives. Equally important, they share these ideas with their students. They make students aware that the concerns they have are common and allow them to practice methods that can help them cope. The tips listed above are only some of the ways that students can re-connect, relax, and re-affirm their ultimate goals. Teaching them how to find the energy to keep working efficiently is an important lesson in learning to be a young scholar.
This Teaching Tip was first published by Indiana State University’s, Center for Teaching and Learning on November 2, 1998.

Quick Thinks

From: http://www1.indstate.edu/cirt1/facdev/tips/index.html

One of the most important findings in learning psychology is that students must deliberately process information in order to retain it. No matter how well new ideas are presented, short term memory can only hold about seven items before it must either process the ideas into long term kinds of memory or lose them. In most lectures, this point is reached every 12-18 minutes.

The successful teacher creates moments that allow students to cognitively process information before it becomes overwhelming. In traditional lecture courses, this may only require two or three brief activities inserted in the middle of a talk. This week's tips offer some ideas that you might use. Of course, classes that do not rely on lectures can adapt these activities to invite critical reflection on the work students are doing.

The ideas presented below are taken from the work of Susan Johnston and Jim Cooper (CSU-Dominguez Hills). They call these activities "Quick Thinks." The CIRT will be glad to send you a copy of their article.

Select the Best Response. At the right moment in your lecture, present students with a single multiple choice question over the material just covered. Have students indicate what they believe is the correct response (usually by holding up a paper with their answer). From the range of responses, you can gauge their understanding of the material and adjust accordingly.

Correct the Error. Present students with a statement -- based on the material just covered -- that contains a deliberate error. Ask students to discover the error and correct it. As you listen to their efforts, you will learn what confusions remain. Students will begin practicing critical thinking.

Complete a Sentence. Create a sentence stem that requires using lecture material to complete accurately. Present it to the class, allowing 1-2 minutes for completion. Ask for several responses before continuing. This activity requires students to recall and interpret rather than just recognize information.

Compare or Contrast. Ask students to compare or contrast newly presented information with prior knowledge. For quick thinking, you should pose the comparison in precise terms, such as: how are the elements of this idea (just covered) like/unlike these other ones?

Support a Statement. Present students with a statement and ask them to use the information just presented to support (or dismiss) the statement. Students will need to connect the material to deeper thought processes to draw connections and inferences.

Re-Order the Steps. If your instruction includes teaching students steps of a procedure, hand out a list of steps in the wrong sequence and ask students to reorganize them. This may make a thought-provoking start to a lecture if linked to the readings.

Reach a Conclusion. Present a short problem to students drawn from data or events or opinions and give students a couple minutes to draw a conclusion that would be consistent with the material you are covering. A short discussion of various responses will model how the material is part of complex thinking.

Paraphrase the Idea. After presenting an idea, have students write down the idea in their own words (or as if they were explaining it to a friend). As you share the results of this complex re-processing of your content, your students profit from hearing it several times, and you can coach those who are still uncertain.

Final Thoughts

Quick Think activities are small but powerful tools to engage students in the kind of mental work that psychologists have shown are crucial to effective learning. There are various adaptations of each of these. Some instructors, for example, let students know that the multiple choice questions are drawn from the question pool used in exams -- capturing attention and introducing students to your testing style. Other faculty connect quick thinks with homework. Still others, have students share in pairs before gathering responses. This brings social support into the processing. By focusing Quick Thinks around the main ideas of the lesson, students learn how to discriminate ideas from details. Some samples can be found in the Johnston and Cooper's essay. Your imaginative application of the principle should help your students become more actively engaged in understanding the lessons of your classroom.

This Teaching Tip was first published by Indiana State University’s, Center for Teaching and Learning on February 9, 1998.

Personality Indexes and Learning Styles

We’re all learners. And we teach others based on the ways we’re most comfortable learning ourselves. Of course how we learn is not necessarily the way that our students learn.

I used the following links for the short d2l presentation I put together for Student Success Day. However, I would encourage you to take the surveys yourselves. (You might also decide to share them with your students.)

Learning Styles Quiz
http://www.educationplanner.com/education_planner/discovering_article.asp?sponsor=2859&articleName=Learning_Styles_Quiz

Multiple Intelligences
http://www.bgfl.org/bgfl/custom/resources_ftp/client_ftp/ks3/ict/multiple_int/index.htm

Jung Typology Test
http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp